Operation Management, LP-Liner Programming- Graduate Business school Assignment

Operation Management, LP-Liner Programming- Graduate Business school - Assignment Example It necessitates the assignment of insufficient resources on the basics of a specific standard of optimality (Robbins & Tuntiwongpiboon, 1989; Lorraine, Alain, & Dominique, 2006) and (Megiddo, 1991). In this connection I would like to provide an analysis of the use of the linear programming techniques and tools for the purposes of hospital management. While considering the prospective reduction in cost and effective operations of the hospital resources, hospitals are confident enough to improve services as well as management of human resources, especially in the department of surgical suite. This report is going to present the working of the tools and techniques of the linear programming for the anesthesiology nurse scheduling problem (ANSP) for a hospital of the French public. The basic purpose of application of the linear programming techniques and tools at the anesthesiology nurses issue is to better manage and assign the most of public resources among different departments (Lorraine, Alain, & Dominique, 2006; Robbins & Tuntiwongpiboon, 1989). The major area creating problem for which the methods and tools of linear programming are being applied is the working nature of hospital that is based on the cross way over surgical specialties as well as presume a range of activities. So here another problem existing is the effective provision of resources. Here major resources are shared and needed to be allocated in a better way (Lorraine, Alain, & Dominique, 2006; Robbins & Tuntiwongpiboon, 1989). So the techniques and tools formed on the basis of liner programming have absolutely provided a solution of these problems into two different ways. For the solution of the problem related to ANSP overall arrangement is programmed in the integer programming as well as constraint programming. Here the implementation of these solutions is focused to maximize the equality of the schedule and allocation (Lorraine,

Cultural Factors Considered By International Marketing Cultural Studies Essay

Cultural Factors Considered By International Marketing Cultural Studies Essay A good basic definition of concept of culture is that it is a set of traditional beliefs and values that are transmitted and shared in a given society. Culture is also the total way of life and thinking pattern that passed from generation to generation. Culture means many things to many people because the concept encompasses norms, values, customs, art and mores. Usunier and Lee(2009)suggests that this emphasis on world markets is often viewed as cross-border extensions of American marketing thought, ignoring people, languages, culture and advocating uniformity. According to Linton (1945), culture is the sum total of several attributes such as knowledge, attitudes, and habitual behavior patterns shared and transmitted by the members of a particular society. Edward Tylor(2002), suggests that culture is a complexity of factors including belief, knowledge, moral, law, custom, art and other capabilities acquired by man as a social being or the member of society. People in different cultures often have different ideas about the same subject. What is acceptable in one culture may not necessarily be acceptable in another. Therefore, a phenomena appearing in different cultures can be interpreted in different manners. Culture is shared and passed from generation to generation and is relatively stable and permanent. Old habits to die hard and a people tend to maintain its own heritage inspite of the fast changing world. Cultural pride and prejudice make many nations reject foreign ideas and imported products. But the reverse may also be true and a perception of greatness attributed to another culture may lead to eager acceptance of things reflecting the culture. For example, Japanese are proud of their culture and economic achievements and prefer to buy Japanese goods. On the other hand, the words Made in America marked on a product communicate quality and sophistication to people in many developing countries. The concept of what is right and wrong is based on culture. To he straight forward and honest are considered morally right in the US even though the feelings of the people are hurt. In Latin cultures, however, people avoid direct statements that would embarrass or would make others uncomfortable. Thus, even if a Latin businessman does not mean to do business, he would appear to have intention to do so. In an empirical study of French, American and Germany managers, substantial differences were noted on ethical issues. On an issue, that may benefit the firm at the expense of the environment, the French and German managers would more likely side with their employers and participate in what they perceive as a relatively minor infraction of environmental law. The American managers were less likely to approve a production run which would result in air pollution. Japanese are also very particular on the maintenance of environmental balance in their work ethics during the production of goods. Multinational corporations operate in different host countries around the world and in doing so have to deal with a wide variety of political, economical, geographical, technological and marketing situations. Moreover, each host country has its own society and culture which is different in many important ways from almost every other society or culture, although there are some commonalties. Though society and culture do not appear to be a part of marketing situations, yet they are actually the key elements in showing how marketing activities will be conducted, from what goods will be produced, and through what means they will be sold to establishing industrial and management patterns and determining the success or failure of local subsidiary or affiliate. Society and culture influence every aspect of overseas business of an MNC and successful MNC operations whether it is marketing, finance, production, or personnel has to be acutely aware of the predominant attitudes, feelings, and opinion in the local environment. Differences in values and attitudes between the management and the parent offices and expatriate managers at the subsidiary or affiliate level and local managers and employees can lead to serious operational and functional problems, which arise not because there are individual problems, but because of the important differences between societies and cultures. Society and culture often mould general attitudes towards fundamentals of life such as time, money, productivity and achievement all of which can differ widely across countries and lead to situations of differing expectations between the management in the home office and local employees of subsidiaries and affiliates. While some sociocultural differences are obvious, others are relatively subtle, though equally important. It is often difficult for an international manager to catch on these subtle differences if he or she has not lived or worked in cultures other than that of home country. MNCs have realised sometimes through costly blunders, that socio cultural factors are vital ingredients that make up overall business environment and that it is essential to appreciate these differences and how they influence the business before an attempt is made to set up an operation in a host country. There are too many human variables and different types of international marketing functions for an exhaustive discussion about culture. The main elements of culture are: Attitudes and beliefs Attitudes towards time Attitudes towards work and leisure Attitudes towards achievement Attitudes towards change Attitudes towards job. Attitudes and beliefs: In every society there are norms of behaviour based on attitudes, values and beliefs that constitute a part of its culture. The set of attitudes and beliefs of a culture will influence nearly-all aspects of human behaviour, providing guidelines and organisation to a society and its individuals. Identifying the attitudes and beliefs of a society and how if they differ from ones own culture will help the businessperson more easily understand the behaviour of people. Attitudes towards time: Everywhere in the world people use time tc communicate with each other. In international business, attitudes towards time are displayed in behaviour regarding punctuality, responses to business communication, responses to deadlines, and the amounts of time that are spent waiting in an outer office for an appointment. Attitudes towards work and leisure: Most people in the industrial society work many more hours than is necessary to satisfy their basic needs for food, clothing, and shelter. Their attitudes towards work and leisure are indicative of their views towards wealth and material gains. These attitudes affect the types, qualities and numbers of individuals who pursue entrepreneurial and management careers as well. Many industrial psychologists have conducted research in this area to determine what motivates people to work more than is necessary to provide for their basic needs. One explanation is the Protestant ethic which has its basis in the reformation, when work was viewed as a means of salvation and people preferred to transform productivity gains into additional output rather than additional leisure. Europeans and Americans are typically considered to adhere to this work ethic because they generally view work as a moral virtue and look unfavourably in the idle. Attitudes towards achievement: Cultural differences in the general attitudes towards work are also accompanied by significant national differences in achievement motivation. In some cultures, particularly those with high stratified and hierarchical societies, there is tendency to avoid personal responsibility and to work according to precise instructions received from supervisors that are followed by the latter. In many societies, especially where social security is low and jobs are prized, there is a tendency to avoid taking risks and little innovation in work or production processes. In such cultures, the prospects of higher achievement is not considered attractive enough to warrant taking avoidable risks. In many industrial societies, however, attitudes towards personal achievements are different. Personal responsibility and the ability to take risks for potential gain are considered valuable instruments in achieving higher goals. In fact, in many cultures the societal pressure on achievement -5 so intense that individuals are automatically driven towards attempting ambitious The types of attitudes among workers and managers often influence the types of management that has to be utilised to achieve corporate goals. In a culture that emphasises risk taking, greater responsibility, and individual decision making  « decentralised management system would be more appropriate. In a culture, where there is a tendency to put in only adequate amounts of work where achievement is not a valued attribute in a person, the company will follow a more centralisee management system with only limited delegation of decision-making authority. Attitudes towards change. The international manager must understand what aspects of a culture will resist change and how the areas of resistance differ among cultures, how the process of change takes place in different cultures and how long :: will take to implement change. There are two conflicting forces within a culture! regarding change. People attempt to protect and preserve a culture with an elaborate set of sanctions and laws on vogue against those who deviate from norms. Wher. differences are seen, they are perceived as, my method is right and other methods must be wrong. The contradictory force is one in which the public is aware that the cultural environment is continuously changing and that a culture must change in order to ensure its own continuity. In fact, in order to balance these attitudes, the manager must remember that a closer new idea can be related to a traditional one whed illustrating its relative advantage, the greater the acceptance of that new concept Usually, cultures with centuries old traditions that have remained closed to outside influences are more resistant to change than other cultures. The level of education in a society and the exposure of its people to the knowledge and experience of other cultures is an extremely important determinant of its attitude towards change. Attitude towards job. The type of job that is considered most desirable or prestigious varies greatly according to different cultures. Thus, while the medicinal and legal professions are considered extremely prestigious in the United States, civil service is considered most prestigious occupation in several developing countries including India. References Morgan, A., 1998, Copycat TV: Globalisation, program formats and cultural identity, Luton, England, University of Luton Press. Tylor Edward B., 2002, Primitive Culture in: Lambek Michael (ed.): A Reader in the Anthropology of Religion, Malden/Ma./USA Oxford/UK, pp. 21-34 Linton, Ralph 1945, The cultural background of personality. New York, Appleton-Century Philip R. Cateora, John L. Graham, 2007, International Marketing, 13th Edition, McGraw-Hills. Jean-Claude Usunier and Julie Anne Lee, 2009, Marketing Across Cultures, 5th edition, Prentice Hall. Latha Nair, 1999, Personnel Management, Himalaya publishing house. Dr. K. Aswathappa, Personnel Management and Industrial Relations, Himalaya publishing house. Svend Hollenses, A global Marketing decision oriented Approach, 3rd Edition. Stonehouse, G, Campbell, D, Hamill, J, Purdie, T, 2004, Global and transnationl business, 2nd Edition, John wiley and sons, west Sussex. Palmer, A, 2007, Introduction to marketing, Oxford university press, Newdelhi. (b) Cateora and Ghauri (2006) state that for the inexperienced marketer, the similar but different aspect of culture creates an illusion of similarity that usually does not exist. What do they mean by this statement? Explain and give specific examples to illustrate the points made. (50% of marks for this assignment) Consumption patterns, living styles and the priority of needs of the human beings play important roles on the culture. This in other words means that culture prescribes the manner in which people satisfy their desires/needs. Consumption of certain food gives a good example of how it influences the culture. Americans, Europeans and Arabians consume beef whereas Thais, Chinese and the majority of Indians do not consume beef at all believing that it is improper to eat cattle that work on farms, thus helping to provide food such as rice and vegetables. In Japan, the per capita annual consumption of beef has increased to 11 Lbs. which is very small compared to the 100 Lbs. per capita consumed in the US and Argentina. The Japanese eat uncooked sea food and the Iraqis eat dried, salted locust as snacks while drinking. The French eat snails. Americans and Europeans use honey (Bee expectorate or bee spit) and blue cheese or Roquefort salad dressing which is made with strong cheese with bluish mould. It has been seen that no society has a monopoly on their unusual eating habits when comparisons are made among various societies. Food preparation methods are also dictated by cultural preferences. Asian consumer prefers chicken broiled or boiled rather than fried. Consequently, the Chinese found that the Americans fried chicken style is foreign and distasteful. The culture not only dictates the type of food to be consumed but also it affects what should not be purchased. For example, Muslims do not purchase chicken unless it is hallaled and like Jews no consumption of pork is allowed. They also do not use alcoholic beverages, a habit which is shared by some of the Protestants. Moussy a non-alcoholic beer from Switzerland is a product that was manufactured for the consumption of Muslims being a non-alcoholic beverage. Life-style of individuals in every country has its own cultural influence. For example, in India majority of male and female wear dhoties/saris/lungis whereas in Pakistan they wear Salwar Kameez. In the western countries the dress code for men is suit with headgear as hat and for ladies it is skirt and blouse whereas in India the headgear is mostly turban. This life-style basically depends upon the weather conditions of the country. The priority of needs from one country to another also varies. For example, the westerners are effluent and buy their imported clothes in large quantities. In the developing countries the needs of individuals are meager. Hence most of the men and women are dressed in the minimum. Beside consumption habits, the thinking processes are also affected by culture. It has been observed that when the individuals travel overseas, it is virtually impossible for a person to observe foreign cultures without making reference, perhaps unconsciously, back to personal cultural values. This phenomenon is known as self reliance criterion (SRC). It is because of the effect of SRC the individual remains bound by his or her cultural assumptions. It is, therefore, necessary for the foreign traveller to recognise how the perception of overseas events can be distorted by the effect of SRC. The best example of SRC is the behaviour of the individuals treating their animals which reflects their thinking processes. Americans and Europeans usually treat dogs and cats as family members addressing the animals affectionately and even allowing them to sleep on their beds. Arabs view dogs as filthy animals. Some in the Far Eas: like Korea and Thailand, go as far as cooking and eating dogs. Hindus in contrast revere cows and are surprised as to how the westerners and the Muslims eat beef, that also in large quantity. The efforts of the international marketing man should be to reduce SRC effect on the individuals. The presence of SRC, if not controlled, can invalidate the results of the research study. Lee suggests a multi-step approach to remove the undue influence of SRC. Firstly the problem should be defined in terms of the culture of the researchers home country. Secondly, the same problem is defined again except that it is defined in terms of the cultural norms of the host country. Thirdly, a comparison is made of two cultural composites. Any difference between the composites indicates the existence of SRC. Although African, Arab and Asian business methods have endured for centuries, most American firms react to those methods in ethnocentric terms and prefer to conduct business along the familiar western lines. Project Heads launching a venture in less developed countries should consider the following guidelines: Resist the tendency to conduct business immediately on landing. Resist the tendency to conduct business at all times. Consider doing favour as a business tool to generate allies. Contact, cultivate and conduct field work among at least one sample clientele to serve as an initial testing centre for the firms product. Introduce the product line into the sample group by local forms of cause related marketing. Extend product acceptance beyond the sample clientele into related segments. An awareness of the influence of the SRCs is valuable because such awareness can help a manager to prevent a transfer of personal cultural norms on a wholesale basis to an overseas market. This awareness should make the manager more customer oriented and the marketing strategy thus developed will reflect through market needs. A country may be classified as a high context culture or low context culture. The context of culture is either high or low in terms of in depth background information. North America and North Europe are examples of low context cultures. In these types of societies messages are explicit and clear in the sense that actual words are used to convey the main part of information in communication. What is important is what is said, not how it is said and not the environment within which it is said. Japan, France, Spain, Italy, some countries of Asia like India, Africa (South Africa) and the Middle East Arabian nations are High-Context Cultures. In such countries the communication may be indirect and the expressive manner in which the message is delivered becomes critical because the verbal part does not carry most of the information. The context of communication is high because it includes a great deal of additional information such as message senders values, position, background and associations in the society. Ones individual environment such as physical setting and social circumstances determine what one says and how it is interpreted by others. This type of communication emphasises ones character and words as determinants of ones integrity making it possible for business persons to come to terms without detailed legal work. A common advertising method used by American advertisers is to present a TV commercial as an illustrated lecture. In this low context method, a product is discussed in the absence of its natural setting. Such a message is not easily understood in high context cultures because of the omission of the essential contextual details. In one of the studies, carried out by researchers they tested six European commercials on five cultural groups ranging from the high context Asian group to the low context Swedish group and the evidence supported Wells proposition. Compared to a low context culture, high context cultures perceive non-verbal communication elements as being more informative.

vehicle names :: essays research papers

What Car Names Really Mean   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   ACURA -Another Crummy, Useless, Rotten Automobile AMC -All Makes Combined AMC -A Major Cost AMC -A Mutated Car AMC -A Morons Car AMC -Another Major Catastrophe AUDI -Accelerates Under Demonic Influence AUDI -All Unsafe Designs Implemented AUDI -Another Ugly Duetsche Invention AUDI -Always Undermining Deutsche Intelligence AUDI -Automobile Unsafe Designs, Inc. BMW -Babbling Mechanical Wench BMW -Beastly Monstrous Wonder BMW -Beautiful Masterpieces on Wheels BMW -Beautiful Mechanical Wonder BMW -Barely Moving Wreck BMW -Big Money Waste BMW -Big Money. Why? BMW -Big Money Works BMW -Born Moderately Wealthy BMW -Breaks Most Wrenches BMW -Bring Many Wrenches BMW -Brings Me Women BMW -Brings More Women BMW -Broken Money Waster BMW -Broke My Wallet BMW -Broken Monstrous Wonder BMW -Brutal Money Waster BMW -Bumbling Mechanical Wretch BMW -Blasphemous Motorized Wreck BUICK -Big Ugly Import Car Killer BUICK -Big Ugly Imitation Chrome King BUICK -Big Ugly Indestructible Car Killer BUICK -Big Ugly Indestructible Compact Killer BUICK -Big Ugly Indestructible Car Killer CADILLAC -Crazy And Demented Idiots Like Large American Cars CADILLAC -Cars Are Driven In Long Lines And Crashed CHEVROLET -Car Has Extensive Valve Rattle, Or Loud Engine Ticks CHEVROLET -Cracked Heads, Every Valve Rattles, Oil Leaks Every Time CHEVROLET -Can Hear Every Valve Rap On Long Extended Trips CHEVROLET -Car Has Extensive Valve Rattle On Long Extended Trips CHEVROLET -Cheap, Hardly Efficient, Virtually Runs On Luck Every Time CHEVROLET -Cheap Heaps Erratically Vibrate Running On Level Even Terrain CHEVROLET -Constantly Having Every Vehicle Recalled Over Lousy Engineering Techniques CHEVROLET -Cracked Heads, Every Valve's Rotten, Oil Leaks Every Time CHEVY -Cheapest Heap Ever Visioned Yet CHEVY -Can Hear Every Valve Yell DODGE -Damn Old Dirty Gas Eater DODGE -Dead Old Dog Going East DODGE -Dead On Day Guarantee Expires DODGE -Dead On Delivery, Go Easy DODGE -Dead On Delivery, Guarantee Expired DODGE -Dead Or Dying Garbage Emitter DODGE -Drips Oil Drops Grease Everywhere DODGE -Driven Only During Grey Evenings EDSEL -Every Day Something Else Leaks FIAT -Failed In A Tunnel FIAT -Fails In Attempted Turns FIAT -Failure In Automotive Technology FIAT -Feeble Italian Attempt at Transportation FIAT -Fits In A Thimble FIAT -Fix It Again Tony FIAT -Flats In All Tires FIAT -Found In A Trench FORD -Fabricated Of Refried Dung FORD -Fails On Rainy Days FORD -Famous Odor Resistant Dog FORD -Falling Off: Rusty Door FORD -Fast Only Rolling Downhill FORD -Fantastically Orgasmic Realistic Dream FORD -Fastest On Road, Dip! FORD -Fatally Obese Redneck Driver FORD -Fault Of R&D FORD -Final Organ of Reproductive Discipline

Psychology, Theology, and Spirtuality by Mark R. McMinn Essay

Through this book written by Mark R. Mcminn his purpose has outlined for the readers the differences between the three overlapping principles of Psychology, Theology and Spirituality. This is a good book that is made special by the author for Christian counsellors, students and pastors to clearly understand the definitions of those three principles.   The book is merely about speaking to those people who are pursuing their active integration of faith, psychology and theology. It discusses classic Christianity and the application to our everyday problem. The value of this book lies in its ability to outline issues to the readers and make them think thoroughly when pondering on potential relationship between disciplines. The book is also considered catalytic in function. The first chapter deals with religion in the counselling office. Here the character of Jill is exposed and her dilemma deals with her awareness of her depression and at the same time overwhelmed with feelings of guilt and inadequacy. She knows that she really need help but worries in finding the right counselor since she is recognizing that her choice could have profound implications on her spiritual life. (Mc.Minn, 1996, p.3) From the counsellor’s perception, different viewpoints are given. Jill’s depression is worsened by her silly religious ideas and she juts need logical and clear thinking about the world according to Counsellor A while Counsellor B is more of interest in listening to Jill and he empathize with her regarding religious values because he believes that Jill needs a supportive companion to learn more in relating to others and herself. Lastly Counsellor C tells Jill about guilt and depression where he helps Jill find areas of sin in her life and admit those mistakes to later on repent and ask God’s forgiveness.    The next chapters discusses Psychological and Spiritual Health, and that in one way or another the two must go hand in hand in order to gain peace of mind. The power of prayer is also implicated on Chapter 3 as well as the Scripture in Chapter 4. The next chapters 5, 6, and 7 is about sins that we made how to have a good confession and later on achieve forgiveness. For in chapter 8, redemption spiritually is really at hand by going hand in hand with the lessons that the readers will get from the book’s chapters.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Religion can be discussed in therapy but the power of change is found in therapeutic relationship. (McMinn, 1996, p.3)This is a book about counselling and techniques and it focuses on the problems we face in the counselling office. This is more of a help for Christian Counsellors and researchers unite around certain key questions and perspective that may result to an increasingly effective and relevant interventions. Reference McMinn, Mark R. (1996). Psychology, theology, and spirituality in Christian counseling. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers.

Human Rights of an Employee Essay

1. Employee An employee contributes labor and expertise to an endeavor of an employer and is usually hired to perform specific duties which are packaged into a job. In most modern economies, the term â€Å"employee† refers to a specific defined relationship between an individual and a corporation, which differs from those of customer or client. Other types of employment are arrangements such as indenturing which is now highly unusual in developed nations but still happens elsewhere. 2. Employer-worker relationship An employer’s level of power over its workers is dependent upon numerous factors, the most influential being the nature of the contractual relationship between the two. This relationship is affected by three significant factors: interests, control and motivation. It is generally considered the employers’ responsibility to manage and balance these factors in a way that enables a harmonious and productive working relationship. Employer and managerial control within an organization rests at many levels and has important implications for staff and productivity alike, with control forming the fundamental link between desired outcomes and actual processes. Employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship. 2.1. Finding employees or employment The main ways for employers to find workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers and online, also called job boards. Employers and job seekers also often find each other via professional recruitment consultants who receive a commission from the employer to find, screen and select suitable candidates. A study has shown, however, that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees.[1] 2.2. Workforce organizing Employees can organize into trade or labor unions, which represent the work force to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working and contractual conditions. 2.3. Ending employment Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time. This is called as at-will employment. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include requirements such as notice periods, severance pay, and security measures. 3. Employment contract 3.1. Australia In Australia there is the controversial Australian Workplace Agreement. In March 2008 a bill was passed in the Austons for workers to be transferred from AWAs into intermediate agreements [2] 3.2. Canada In the Canadian province of Ontario, formal complaints can be brought to the Ministry of Labor (Ontario). In the province of Quebec, grievances can be filed with the Commission des norms du travail. 3.3. Pakistan Pakistan has Contract Labor, Minimum Wage and Provident Funds Acts. Contract labor in Pakistan must be paid minimum wage and certain facilities are to be provided to labor. However, a lot of work has yet to be done to fully implement the Acts. 3.4. India India has Contract Labor, Minimum Wage and Provident Funds Acts. Contract labour in India must be paid minimum wage and certain facilities are to be provided to labour. However, a lot of work has yet to be done to fully implement the Act. 3.5. Philippines In the Philippines, private employment is regulated under the Labor Code of the Philippines by the Department of Labor and Employment. 3.6. United States In the United States, the standard employment relationship is considered to be at-will, meaning that the employer and employee are both free to terminate the employment at any time and for any cause, or for no cause at all. However, if a termination of employment[3] by the employer is deemed unjust by the employee, there can be legal recourse to challenge such a termination. Unjust termination may include termination due to discrimination because of an individual’s race, national origin, sex or gender, pregnancy, age, physical or mental disability, religion, or military status. Additional protections apply in some states, for instance in California unjust termination reasons include marital status, ancestry, sexual orientation or medical condition. Despite whatever agreement an employer makes with an employee for the employee’s wages, an employee is entitled to certain minimum wages set by the federal government. The states may set their own minimum wage that is higher than the federal government’s to ensure a higher standard of living or living wage for their residents. Under the Equal Pay Act of 1963 an employer may not give different wages based on sex alone.[4] Employees are often contrasted with independent contractors, especially when there is dispute as to the worker’s entitlement to have matching taxes paid, workers compensation, and unemployment insurance benefits. However, in September 2009, the court case of Brown v. J. Kaz, Inc. ruled that independent contractors are regarded as employees for the purpose of discrimination laws if they work for the employer on a regular basis, and said employer directs the time, place, and manner of employment.[5] In non-union work environments, in the United States, unjust termination complaints can be brought to the United States Department of Labor. Trade Unions in the United States In unionized work environments in particular, employees who are receiving discipline, up to and including termination of employment can ask for assistance by their shop steward to advocate on behalf of the employee. If an informal negotiation between the shop steward and the company does not resolve the issue, the shop steward may file a grievance, which can result in a resolution within the company, or mediation or arbitration, which are typically funded equally both by the union and the company. In the US, employment law and, in particular, unionized employees terminating employment varies among companies, unions, and states. Some states have right to work vs. employment at will and therefore, ending employment can change from state to state. Secondly, different companies have different rules and processes for ending employment. In certain companies and industries they take the 3-step process: written warning, second written, final written and then termination. In addition, different unions have different steps for ending employment. Something that doesn’t change is the stewards and unions protecting their employees with regards to violations of policies. In most all cases, union and stewards will protect their employees even if they feel the employee violated the policy ending to termination. 3.7. Sweden According to Swedish law,[6] there are three types of employment. * Test employment (swe: Provanstà ¤llning), where the employer hires a person for a test period of max 6 months. The employment can be ended at any time without giving any reason. This type of employment can be offered only once per employer and employee. Usually a time limited or normal employment is offered after a test employment. * Time limited employment (swe: Tidsbegrà ¤nsad anstà ¤llning). The employer hires a person for a specified time. Usually they are extended for a new period. Total maximum two years per employee per employer and employee, then it automatically counts as a normal employment. * Normal employment (swe: Tillsvidareanstà ¤llning / Fast anstà ¤llning), which has no time limit (except for retirement etc.). It can still be ended for two reasons: personal reason, only strong reasons such as crime. Or: lack of work tasks (swe: Arbetsbrist), cancellation of employment, usually because of bad income for the company. There is a cancellation period of 1–6 months, and rules for how to select employees, basically those with shortest employment time shall be cancelled first. There are no laws about minimum salary in Sweden. Instead there are agreements between employer organizations and trade unions about minimum salaries, and other employment conditions. 4. Wage labor Wage labor (or wage labor) is the socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer, where the worker sells their labor under a formal or informal employment contract. These transactions usually occur in a labor market where wages are market determined.[7][8] In exchange for the wages paid, the work product generally becomes the undifferentiated property of the employer, except for special cases such as the vesting of intellectual property patents in the United States where patent rights are usually vested in the original personal inventor. A wage laborer is a person whose primary means of income is from the selling of his or her labor in this way. In modern mixed economies such as that of the OECD countries, it is currently the dominant form of work arrangement. Although most work occurs following this structure, the wage work arrangements of CEOs, professional employees, and professional contract workers are sometimes conflated with class assignments, so that â€Å"wage labor† is considered to apply only to unskilled, semi-skilled or manual labor. 5. Working poor Employment is no guarantee of escaping poverty, the International Labor Organization (ILO) estimates that as many as 40% of workers as poor, not earning enough to keep their families above the $2 a day poverty line.[9] For instance, in India most of the chronically poor are wage earners in formal employment, because their jobs are insecure and low paid and offer no chance to accumulate wealth to avoid risks.[9] This problems appears to be caused by the decreasing likelihood of a simultaneous growth in employment opportunities and in labor productivity.[9] According to the UNRISD, increasing labor productivity appears to have a negative impact on job creation: in the 1960s, a 1% increase in output per worker was associated with a reduction in employment growth of 0.07%, by the first decade of this century the same productivity increase implies reduced employment growth by 0.54%.[9] Both increased employment opportunities and increased labor productivity (as long as it also translates into higher wages) are needed to tackle poverty. Increases in employment without increases in productivity leads to a rise in the number of â€Å"working poor†, which is why some experts are now promoting the creation of â€Å"quality† and not â€Å"quantity† in labor market policies.[9] This approach does highlight how higher productivity has helped reduce poverty in East Asia, but the negative impact is beginning to show.[9] In Viet Nam, for example, employment growth has slowed while productivity growth has continued.[9] Furthermore, productivity increases do not always lead to increased wages, as can be seen in the United States, where the gap between productivity and wages has been rising since the 1980s.[9] Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute argue that there are differences across economic sectors in creating employment that reduces poverty.[9] 24 instances of growth were examined, in which 18 reduced poverty. This study showed that other sectors were just as important in reducing unemployment, as manufacturing.[9] The services sector is most effective at translating productivity growth into employment growth.